The overall objective of the proposed work is to understand the structure and organization of normal memory and its neurological foundations. We are studying the amnesic effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), the noted patient N.A., and have recently established a population of Korsakoff patients. In addition we are studying memory as it is affected by normal aging, and by certain psychotropic drugs. A related goal of the research is to specify the risks of ECT to memory, and to define those current parameters associated with least memory loss.